Initial post on Types of Burn Injuries Pathophysiology Febru…
Questions
Emmа Hаrtsfield: Initiаl Pоst оn Asthma Intrоduction “Asthma is characterized as a chronic inflammatory disease that is shown through hyperreactiveness of the airway, airflow obstruction, and persistence.” (Borrelli et al., 2025) The disease is reversible and affects millions of people worldwide, so it is important to understand it fully. Etiology and Genetic Risk Asthma has multiple etiologies and is deemed a multifactorial or heterogeneous disease, meaning it can fester in a variety of ways. (Capriotti, 2024) (O’Keefe, Connors, Ling, & Kim, 2025) “The most common etiology of asthma is allergy (also called atopy), which includes a variety of environmental hypersensitivities such as exhaust fumes, perfumes, pollen, grasses, flowers, dust, smoke, animal dander, molds, and spores.” Indoor allergens include animal dander and other parts of the animal, such as hair, saliva, and skin (which is widespread in children). Air pollution due to the urbanization of the Earth has contributed to the cause and development of asthma. The pollutants generally come from cars and other fossil fuels, where children of low income have shown a higher risk of these effects. Viral infections that occur in the lungs are common asthma triggers. Many asthma attacks in children are caused by viral infections. Additionally, asthma attacks can lead to acute bronchitis and bronchospasms in adults. “GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease) and AERD (aspirin exacerbated respiratory disease)” are also common triggers. Asthma can also be silent in some individuals and only show when they exercise. (Capriotti, 2024) Furthermore, asthma has several genetic components. “There are sex related differences in asthma; in females, the inflammatory response is amplified due to the X chromosome because it harbors immune-regulatory genes. Estrogen in females has been shown to enhance type 2 inflammation and contributes to increased asthma severity, whereas testosterone appears to have a more protective effect.” (Borrelli et al., 2025) There are genes that are associated with the development of asthma; on chromosome 17, the locus 17q21, contains several genes that associate with early onset/childhood asthma. (Capriotti, 2024) Clinical Presentation and Signs/Symptoms A doctor should assess the severity of asthma and be sure to get an adequate history of his or her asthma. Family history and a history of childhood asthma are important to know to determine the treatment for the patient. (Capriotti, 2024) The shortening of smooth muscle in the airway causes the airway to narrow, which in turn evokes wheezing, chest tightness, cough, and dyspnea. (McDuffie, Panettieri, & Scott, 2024) A patient's symptoms may vary depending on the severity of hyperresponsiveness or reversibility of whatever is obstructing the airway. Patients may not be able to get but one or two words out before having to take another breath. A patient may also go into respiratory failure, which is shown by inaudible breath sounds and a constant hacking cough. Rhonchi may be present, and when asthma is related to allergies, nasal edema, eczema, nasal polyps, and oropharyngeal erythema may be present. (Capriotti, 2024) Diagnosis “Asthma is based on both a clinical history, physical examination, laboratory findings, and PFTs;” there is no “gold standard test” to diagnose asthma. A physical exam can be done; however, since asthma is multifactorial, a physical finding may present when the patient is showing symptoms. Furthermore, the absence of symptoms rules out the patient having asthma. The most common finding is wheezing after auscultation (listening) of the lungs. “Spirometry (PFT) measures a patient’s forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV) and forced vital capacity (FVC) and determines the severity of the asthma.” In children 1-5 years of age, a documentation of wheezing and other airflow signs should be documented, and given corticosteroids and SABA (short-acting beta agonist: inhaler). In children over 6 years, a spirometry should be done, and a bronchodilator should be administered after, and both results should be documented to find out the severity. The diagnosis of asthma should be considered if there is an increase in FEV after a bronchodilator there is a greater than 12% in FEC. In patients 18 years or older, spirometry should be done, and a diagnosis is shown if there is an increase of FEC of 12% or more and at least 200mL after inhaling the SABA (Inhaler). In patients where a PT may not be able to be performed, the addition of fractional exhaled nitric oxide or FeNNO can also be used to diagnose asthma and “is an adjunct to the evaluation process.” (This test is typically done in people ages 5 years and older) (O’Keefe, Connors, Ling, & Kim, 2025) (Capriotti, 2024) Treatment/Management The goal when treating asthma is to control it and to reach the best possible outcomes for each individual. Asthma is typically treated or managed in a stepwise approach, meaning that each step of treatment should include educating the patient, controlling environmental factors, care of comorbidities (presence of more than one health condition), and medication. In the stepwise treatment, based on the results, the patient may move up a step, or they may move down a step as needed. It is important to determine the allergens that affect individuals with allergy-induced asthma, so that whatever they are allergic to, they can avoid it, if possible. Allergen immunotherapy may also help with allergic asthma. Allergen immunotherapy, or AIT, involves a patient going to the doctor several times to administer minute amounts of their allergen by injection to “desensitize the individual” to their allergen. SLIT or sublingual immunotherapy is the same process but without injections. In the treatment of asthma, medications typically fall into two categories: controllers and relievers. Controllers are medications that are taken long-term or daily and typically have anti-inflammatory effects to control asthma. Relievers are medications that are used as-needed for quick relief of bronchoconstriction.” Inhalers are commonly prescribed, with many of them containing a combination of formoterol (LABA: long-acting adrenergic beta-2 agonist) and ICS (inhaled corticosteroids), which are used for maintenance therapy of asthma. In addition to stepwise treatment, the Global Initiative for Asthma recommends treatment in terms of two tracks. Track 1 is low-dose ICS-formoterol as the rescue and reliever medication (track 1 is generally the preferred route). Track 2 has SABA (as mentioned in the diagnosis section) as the rescue and reliever medication (not the preferred route). Track 2 is recommended when Track 1 is not possible, or the patient has good treatment results showing with their controller, and “has not had any exacerbations in the last 12 months.” SABA is not recommended because it has shown results leading to reduced bronchodilation response and increased allergic responses. As mentioned above, it is important to educate your patient so that they are using their inhalers efficiently and correctly (demonstration of the technique for using the inhaler is recommended). A spacer device is given to the patient to ensure proper delivery of the inhaler (especially in children). “In patients who have severe and persistent asthma that is not being helped with medication, bronchial thermoplasty, performed with a bronchoscope, uses a wire probe to deliver heat to the airway and decrease the smooth muscle that is constricting the patient's airway.” (O’Keefe, Connors, Ling, & Kim, 2025) (Capriotti, 2024) Complications Asthma is one of those diseases that can lead to several different complications (especially in the respiratory system). Status asthmaticus is an underlying condition that is defined by persistent bronchoconstriction that remains despite attempts to treat the attacks. “Pulmonary gas exchange is diminished by the uneven distribution of ventilation because of the bronchoconstriction…This can lead to a ventilation-perfusion mismatch; areas that are ventilated in the lung are not getting enough perfusion.” Thus, there is insufficient oxygenation to the bloodstream. On the other hand, there can be circulation but no ventilation; in this condition, if the bronchoconstriction is not relieved, the patient will become exhausted. The patient may also become dehydrated, and this can lead to total alveolar ventilation failure, and the patient may present with cyanosis (blue or purple discoloration of the skin showing signs of bad perfusion in the blood). This condition is life-threatening, so it is important to catch asthma in patients as soon as possible. (Capriotti, 2024) Conclusion “Asthma is a common disease that affects more than 300 million people worldwide, including 25 million Americans.” Patients will present with a persistent cough, wheezing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath, and are generally diagnosed through PFT’s (spirometry). Allergy testing is also preferred for those with allergic-type asthma. In treating asthma, it can be controlled through stepwise treatments and medications (controller and reliever). Inhaled corticosteroids and formoterol are typically combined to help. When asthma is difficult to control, different tracks are recommended (track 1 being the most recommended), and combinations of certain inhalers and therapies are typically recommended to give additional control. If not assessed carefully and correctly, a patient can develop complications with asthma, such as status asthmaticus, which is threatening to life. Thus, management of asthma is critical to preventing any further severe outcomes. (O’Keefe, Connors, Ling, & Kim, 2025) (Capriotti, 2024). References McDuffie, E. L., Panettieri, R. A., & Scott, C. P. (2024). G12/13 signaling in asthma. Respiratory Research, 25(1), 295. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-024-02920-0Links to an external site. Borrelli, R., Brussino, L., Lo Sardo, L., Quinternetto, A., Vitali, I., Bagnasco, D., Boem, M., Corradi, F., Badiu, I., Negrini, S., & Nicola, S. (2025). Sex-Based Differences in Asthma: Pathophysiology, Hormonal Influence, and Genetic Mechanisms. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26115288Links to an external site. O’Keefe, A., Connors, L., Ling, L., & Kim, H. (2025). Asthma. Allergy, Asthma, and Clinical Immunology: Official Journal of the Canadian Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 20(Suppl 3), 81. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13223-025-00949-4Links to an external site. Capriotti, T. (2024). Davis Advantage For Pathophysiology: Introductory Concepts and Clinical Perspectives (3rd ed.). F.A. Davis Company
Initiаl Pоst оn Urinаry Trаct Infectiоns Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are one of the most common bacterial infections, especially in women. A UTI develops when bacteria enter the urinary tract and starts growing. The urinary tract is made up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Most infections affect the bladder, which is known as cystitis. If the infection spreads to the kidneys, it becomes more serious and is called pyelonephritis. The most common cause of UTI is Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacteria which normally lives in the gastrointestinal tract. Women are more likely to develop UTIs because their urethra is shorter, allowing bacteria to reach the bladder more quickly. Risk factors include sexual activity, pregnancy, postmenopausal changes, improper wiping techniques, urinary retention, catheter use, and a history of previous infections (Schmiemann et al., 2024). There is also some evidence that genetics can play a role. Certain people may have differences in their immune system or urinary tract lining that make it easier for bacteria to attach and cause infection. Symptoms can vary depending on how severe the infection is. Most people with a bladder infection experience burning with urination, urinary urgency, cloudy or strong-smelling urine, and lower abdominal discomfort. If the infection spreads to the kidneys, symptoms may include fever, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, and chills. In older adults, confusion may sometimes be the only noticeable symptom. During a physical assessment, providers often check for abdominal tenderness or costovertebral angle tenderness if kidney involvement is suspected. Diagnosis of a UTI is often based on symptoms and urinalysis. A urine dipstick test may show leukocyte esterase, nitrites, or white blood cells, indicating infection. For patients with recurrent urinary tract infections (defined as two infections in six months or three in one year), a urine culture is recommended to confirm the specific bacteria and guide treatment (Schiemann et al., 2024). Imaging such as ultrasound may be used if structural abnormalities are suspected. Current clinical practice guidelines emphasize avoiding unnecessary antibiotics and confirming infection before starting long-term preventive treatment. Treatment for uncomplicated UTIs typically includes short-course antibiotic therapy such as nitrofurantoin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (depending on resistance rates), or fosfomycin. These medications are very effective, but repeated antibiotic use can increase resistance. For patients with recurrent UTIs, daily or post-coital antibiotic prophylaxis may reduce recurrence, but it carries a risk of side effects and antibiotic resistance (Schiemann et al., 2024). Because of these concerns, non-antibiotic prevention methods are becoming more common. A recent systematic review found that methenamine may be an effective alternative for preventing recurrent UTIs and showed similar effectiveness to antibiotics without increasing adverse effects (Davidson et al.,2024). Other prevention strategies include increasing daily fluid intake, cranberry products, taking mannose supplements, and vaginal estrogen therapy for postmenopausal women (Schmiemann et al., 2024). These options support antimicrobial stewardship while still helping reduce recurrence. New therapies are also being studied. One recent clinical trial examined a CRISPR-enhanced bacteriophage therapy targeting E. coli in uncomplicated UTIs and showed promising early results (Kim et al., 2024). While this therapy is not yet standard practice, it may become an important option in the future as antibiotic resistance continues to rise. Overall, Urinary tract infections are very common but can significantly impact a person's quality of life, especially when they are recurrent. Proper diagnosis, evidence-based treatment, and individualized prevention strategies are important in reducing recurrence and preventing complications. As antibiotic resistance continues to grow, healthcare providers must balance effective treatment with responsible antibiotic use. References Davidson, S. M., Brown, J. N., Nance, C. B., & Townsend, M. L. (2024). Use of methenamine for urinary tract infection prophylaxis: Systematic review of recent evidence. International Urogynecology Journal. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-024-05726-2](https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-024-05726-2)Links to an external site. Kim, P., Sanchez, A. M., Penke, T. J. R., et al. (2024). Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of LBP-EC01, a CRISPR-Cas3-enhanced bacteriophage cocktail, in uncomplicated urinary tract infections due to Escherichia coli (ELIMINATE): The randomized, open-label, first part of a two-part phase 2 trial. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(24)00424-9](https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099%2824%2900424-9)Links to an external site. Schmiemann, G., Kranz, J., Mandraka, F., Schubert, S., Wagenlehner, F., & Gágyor, I. (2024). The diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. [https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.m2024.0068](https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.m2024.0068)
Initiаl Pоst оn Appendicitis In оrder to understаnd аppendicitis or inflammation of the appendix, someone must first understand what the appendix is. “The appendix is a small, worm-like diverticulum of the caecum, and it serves a role in regulating intestinal microbiota and immunology” (Salminen et al., 2025). Appendicitis can occur in a wide range of patients, but it most often occurs in young adulthood. Acute appendicitis is one of the most commonly reported abdominal emergencies, but it can range in severity and effect. While there are still a lot of gaps in what we know about appendicitis, we do know that those who just present with acute appendicitis are at significantly less risk than someone who presents with perforation and peritonitis of the appendix as well. Perforation is when the inflamed appendix tears release bacteria filled pus into the abdominal cavity, peritonitis is when this bacteria causes infection of the peritoneum, and the only way to remedy this issue is emergency surgery. This emergency surgery can provide life-saving support to individuals who have appendix ruptures, which is another way to say perforations. Etiology and Genetic Disposition Although there is still some guesswork involved with the etiology of appendicitis in people because the appendix is a nonfunctional organ, therefore, there has been less research done on it than on other organs, the hypothesis is that appendicitis results from a nearby blockage, commonly caused by stool (Capriotti, 2024). This blockage can also occur when the nearby lymph nodes become inflamed and compress the appendix. Appendicitis can also occur when the appendix becomes twisted by bowel movements. As a result of either of these things, the protective layer of mucosa becomes compromised, and luminal bacteria multiply and attack the wall of the appendix, which causes inflammation. When this inflammation is coupled with tissue ischemia, that is when perforation of the appendix occurs, tearing the appendix. Once the appendix has torn, the bacteria and mucus that were inside the appendix then spill out into the abdominal cavity, causing peritonitis. Dietary fiber has been found to help lower the chances of developing appendicitis, and therefore, cultures where fiber is consumed more regularly also report fewer instances of appendicitis. There is some genetic predisposition to appendicitis, because it has been found that having a family history of it increases the likelihood of the disorder, especially in males. Also, if someone in your family has cystic fibrosis, it has been reported to put children at a higher risk of appendicitis. Assessment and Clinical Manifestations To begin the process of assessing someone with appendicitis, the individual must first complain of pain in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen (Salminen et al., 2025). This pain will often start mild and grow more severe as time progresses. The pain often also seems to increase with any sort of jarring movements, these can include coughing or taking deep breaths. Some people will also report nausea, vomiting, anorexia, fever, and chills present along with their pain. Constipation or diarrhea, and abdominal bloating are often present in acute appendicitis. Patients with appendicitis have also shown increased levels of procalcitonin and IL-6 when lab work was done. Patients who are suspected to have only acute appendicitis are often only assessed on these things, while a patient who is suspected to have a perforation will often get a CT-scan, abdominal ultrasound, or an X-ray to determine for sure before they have an appendectomy. An ultrasound will not be able to view a regular appendix, only one that is significantly inflamed and in the process of perforation. Urinalysis is often used to rule out the possibility of kidney stones or pyelonephritis, which can present similarly to appendicitis, and a pelvic examination and hCG blood test would be done on all females post pubescent age in order to rule out any chances of pregnancy. Current Clinical Practice Standards Treatment of individuals is case-by-case and depends on whether it is just acute appendicitis or if perforation is also present. Early treatment often consists of antibiotics that affect gram-negative bacteria, in surgeries case these should be administered pre-surgery and then 48 hours post-surgery as well (Capriotti, 2024). In a lot of cases, an appendectomy is required, which can be because of a chance or perforation, or because of the recurrence of appendicitis to the point it is messing with the patient's life. An emergency surgery might be required in the case that the perforation has caused peritonitis. There are two different types of appendectomies, laparoscopic and open. The use of these two surgeries greatly depends on the hospital and the readily available resources. Patients who only underwent antibiotics presented on a similar pain scale, but were often able to return to life faster than those who underwent an appendectomy. Approximately 70% of those patients were able to avoid surgery entirely, while the remaining 30% eventually required appendectomies for recurring appendicitis or severe symptoms of abdominal pain. In conclusion, appendicitis can be a very painful and serious disease in some cases, and in serious cases, if left untreated, it can lead to death. If someone is having significant pain in the lower right quadrant of their abdomen, it is a good idea for them to take that to a health care provider instead of continuously popping pain relievers to deal with the signs of appendicitis, especially if that individual has a family history of appendicitis. Appendicitis can be a fairly quick fix, even though the surgery itself isn’t an extremely intensive recovery, as long as someone doesn’t let the perforation turn into peritonitis and let that turn into sepsis. This condition is not rare, and should not be something people are terrified of, but rather something people are informed of just in case. References Bhaskar, K., Clarke, S., Moore, L. S. P., & Hughes, S. (2023). Bacterial peritonitis in paediatric appendicitis; microbial epidemiology and antimicrobial management. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 22(1), 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12941-023-00591-1 Capriotti, T. M. (2024). Pathophysiology: Introductory Concepts and Clinical Perspectives. (3rd ed.). F.A. Davis. Salminen, P., Jussi Haijanen, Minneci, P. C., Davidson, G. H., Boermeester, M. A., Livingston, E., Andersson, R. E., Lee, K. H., & Flum, D. (2025). Appendicitis. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 11(1), 79–79. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-025-00659-6 Shahmoradi, M. K., Zarei, F., Beiranvand, M., & Hosseinnia, Z. (2021). A retrospective descriptive study based on etiology of appendicitis among patients undergoing appendectomy. International Journal of Surgery Open, 31, 100326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijso.2021.100326
Initiаl pоst оn Types оf Burn Injuries Pаthophysiology Februаry 10, 2026 Types of Burn Injury Burn trauma may be obtained by various mechanisms of injury and are characterized by the means of which they are acquired. The main four ways in which burns are manifested are thermal, chemical, electrical, and radiation. The etiology of each type of burn is how healthcare providers are able to define a prognosis along with the classification of the burn. The extent of the burn is determined by the percent of body surface area (BSA), skin thickness, heat level, and contact duration (Capriotti, 2024). Thermal Burns Burns acquired from high heat sources, like fire, scalding liquids or steams, or contact burns are classified as thermal burns. These burns vary depending on the type of duration and depth of exposure and can range from epidermal to subdermal to subcutaneous and deeper. Scald burns are the most prevalent burn in children and are caused by contact with hot, scalding fluids or steam. When these substances are at 158 degrees or higher tissue necrosis occurs within mere seconds. Once exposed to this type of burn, the damage has already occurred and must be treated. In order to treat thermal burns, several steps must ensue. The heat source must be removed, the patient should be stabilized, the individual’s body temperature should be maintained, injury classification should be identified, and the patient should be prepared to be transported. The airway must be assessed and if the airway is not exhibiting eupnea, intubation may be required. If the patient is showing normal respiration, oxygen should be given via face mask and the head should be elevated. The patient should not be given fluids via mouth because of the possibility of aspiration or emesis. Fluids should be given to the patient through an intravenous line in a non-burned area. In cases of highly burned TBSA, the patient may need to undergo fluid resuscitation, preventing hypovolemic shock. Vital signs should be monitored to actively monitor fluid resuscitation and assess circulation. Chemical Burns Unlike thermal burns, chemical burns are much more infrequent. Industrial workers are the most likely victims of these burns, often ingesting pernicious chemicals. Chemical burns may cause proteolysis, or protein breakdown, and creates the skin of a burn victim to be gray. These types of burns will remain causing damage to the patient until the causative agent of the burn is removed. The chemical agent is removed by firstly removing any clothing that may be harboring the chemical, then if the agent is dry, brushing it off, and flooding the wound with water for 20 minutes. If a patient has been burned with a chemical that requires specialized treatment, calling the Poison Control Center may be necessary for proper treatment. Electrical Burns Similar to chemical burns, electrical burns account for less than 10% of all burns acquired (Capriotti, 2024). Risk factors for this type of burn include young adult men employed in electrical job positions, often low-income (Chen and Wang, 2024). Electric currents typically create an entry and exit wound on the victim, often damaging internal organs as the current moves through the body. Because of this, it is important that the patient is assessed for internal damage, the current often takes the path of least obstruction in the body. The entry and exit injuries may give important information on the path of the current and provide answers to which of the organs may be harmed. If the patient’s vital organs were damaged, the extent of trauma will be more severe and mortality is more likely. The extent of the trauma is dependent upon the duration of injury, pathway of the electrical current, and amount of voltage. The treatment of electrical burns begins with ensuring that the current no longer remains. Assessing the patient for consciousness sets the provider up to then ensure that the patient is immobilized with a cervical collar to prevent further spinal injuries. Radiation Burns Radiation burns are distinct because they are acquired by ionizing radiation material. These burns are harmful from thermal burns and also internal and external contamination. External burns from radiation typically affect skin and tissue, and damage may be visibly delayed and appear weeks after the initial exposure. Asking the patient for their remembrance of the event is helpful in understanding the extent of exposure to radioactive materials. Radiation burns are measured in “rads,” or the radiation amount absorbed by tissues. However, the risk of the exposure is measured in “rems.” A patient’s cutaneous radiation injury (CRI) is diagnosed by the amount of radiation, depth of the current, and visible harm obtained. Internal radiation exposure may cause acute radiation syndrome (ARS) if the patient is exposed to extreme amounts of radiation in a short time frame. Damage to the central nervous system and gastrointestinal issues are common in those exposed to extreme levels of radiation. Irrigation of external wounds helps to decrease internal damage. If more information must be received by the providers, the Radiation Emergency Assistive Center may be contacted. Burn Classifications All burns may be classified under three categories: superficial, partial-thickness, and full-thickness. Superficial burns, previously known as first-degree burns, harm only the epidermis. Sunburns and brief exposure to hot substances are common to this type of burn. With superficial burns skin remains intact, typically are painful, and blistering does not occur. Defining the burned BSA percentage is not necessary since the skin is typically healed within a week. The next degree of burns is partial thickness, formerly named second-degree burns. Depending on the measure of tissue necrosis, partial-thickness burns may be superficial or deep. Superficial partial-thickness wounds burn the epidermis and show epidermal blisters, edema, and wet, raw, pink or red skin. These burns may heal within 3-6 weeks, sometimes with skin discoloration. Deep partial-thickness burns affect the epidermis, and reticular layers of the dermis. The skin color is often similar to that of superficial partial-thickness burns, but can appear blotchier. The patient’s pain may vary from much to little depending on the amount of nerve tissue affected. Blisters are common to this burn, and should remain intact in order to prevent infection. The final classification of burns are full-thickness burns. These burns damage the epidermis, dermis, follicles, and all underlying tissue. Most patients experience no pain because of extensive nerve damage obtained. The skin appears red, black, white, or brown and has considerable edema. These burns are often caused by prolonged exposure and are the most severe burn obtained. Conclusion In summary, burns are categorized by thermal, chemical, electrical, and radiation. Each type of burn is acquired differently and must be treated likewise. Thermal burns can be recalled as burns acquired from hot liquids or steam. Chemical burns are often from strong acid materials, like household cleaning products. Electrical burns vary from low-voltage household currents to high-voltage from a lightning strike. Radiation burns are acquired from ionizing radioactive material. Finally, each type of burn may range from superficial to partial-thickness to full-thickness and treatment for each burn is extremely varied and should be determined using this classification system. References: Capriotti, T. (2024). Davis Advantage for Pathophysiology. F.A. Davis. “DynaMed.” Dynamed.com, 2025, www.dynamed.com/condition/burns-in-children-initial-triage-and-management#GUID-A3A21619-9E0B-420B-B3C5-0C990F164D74Links to an external site.. Markiewicz-Gospodarek, Agnieszka, et al. “Burn Wound Healing: Clinical Complications, Medical Care, Treatment, and Dressing Types: The Current State of Knowledge for Clinical Practice.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 19, no. 3, 25 Jan. 2022, p. 1338, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35162360/, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031338Links to an external site.. Chen, Jigang, and Yanni Wang. “Characteristics and Risk Factors for Electrical Burn Injuries: A Study Based on World Health Organization Global Burn Registry.” Burns, 17 Jan. 2024, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305417924000159, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2024.01.014Links to an external site.. Wallace MD MSc FRCSC, David . “Best Practice Recommendations for Skin Health and Wound Management 2025.” PubMed, 2025, www.woundscanada.ca/doclink/8-bpr-chapter-8-2025/eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdWIiOiI4LWJwci1jaGFwdGVyLTgtMjAyNSIsImlhdCI6MTczODg2MDUyNCwiZXhwIjoxNzM4OTQ2OTI0fQ.N8kjTbsYyAcI4vTJtMxLbYvS0T5BPOEIw9-Meqh6oy0Links to an external site..
Q2. Twо identicаl thin-wаlled pressure vessels аre suppоrted as shоwn: (a) at the bottom and (b) at the top. Determine the state of stress in the wall of the cylinders for both cases if the piston P causes the internal pressure to be 65 psi. The wall has a thickness of 0.25 in. and the inner diameter of the cylinders is 8 in. Formula Reference Sheets.pdf
Q1. Determine the nоrmаl аnd sheаr stresses оn a crack оriented 50° clockwise to the horizontal at the same location of the element shown. Sketch the new orientation of the element clearly showing the stresses. Formula Reference Sheets.pdf
The fоllоwing infоrmаtion аpplies to Mаrkham Company Assets Cash $ 7,200 Accounts receivable 16,000 Inventory 17,100 Plant and equipment, net 25,000 Land 17,600 Total assets $82,900 Liabilities and stockholders' equity Accounts payable $ 4,800 Salaries payable 14,500 Bonds payable (due 2020) 13,900 Capital stock, no par 23,400 Retained earnings 26,300 Total liabilities and stockholders' equity $82,900 Additional information: Net credit sales equal $229,000 and beginning accounts receivable were $11,700. Required: Compute Markham's: Quick ratio Current ratio Working capital Accounts receivable turnover Average days to collect receivables Note: Round your answers to two decimal places.
Firth Cоmpаny's аnnuаl repоrt shоws an average inventory balance of $45,000 and cost of goods of $300,000. Total assets amount to $500,000 and liabilities amount to $110,000. Based on this information (treat any partial day as a whole day): Note: Do not round intermediate calculations.
Trivоld Cоmpаny bоrrowed $46,000 on September 1, Yeаr 1 from the First Stаte Bank. Trivld agreed to pay interest annually at the rate of 6% per year. The note issued by Trivold carried an 18-month term. Based on this information the amount of interest expense appearing on Trivold's Year 1 income statement would be: (4 points)